July 1999 Newsletter

SENATE APPROPRIATIONS COMMITTEE RECOMMENDS MORE FUNDS FOR NIST THAN REQUESTED

The Senate Appropriations Committee on 10 June recommended more FY2000 funding for NIST than the administration requested. The Manufacturing Extension Partnership (MEP) and construction funding would receive more than requested, while NIST's in-house laboratories would be funded at approximately the requested level, according to the AIP Bulletin of Science Policy News (29 June).

The Advanced Technology Program (ATP) would get less than requested, but the Senate's recommendation, combined with unused ATP funds from prior years, would together total more than the FY2000 request. The Senate committee's recommended levels for all NIST programs are significantly higher than the current FY99 appropriation.

NIST appropriations (in millions):

NIST Program	FY99	FY2000 Request	Senate committee
NIST total	$647.2	$735.0	$742.0
Scientific and Technical Research and Services	$280.1	$289.6	$288.1
Advanced technology program	$203.5	$238.7	$226.5
Manufacturing extension program	$106.8	$99.8	$109.8
Construction	$56.7	$106.8	$117.5

COLWELL, GOLDIN DECRY DECLINE IN FEDERAL SUPPORT FOR PHYSICAL SCIENCES RESEARCH

NSF Director Rita Colwell and NASA Administrator Dan Goldin have condemned the declining trend of federal government support for research in the physical sciences. Their reaction stemmed from recently released reports from the National Research Council's Board on Science, Technology, and Economic Policy (STEP), "Securing America's Industrial Strength" and a companion report, "U.S. Industry in 2000: Studies In Competitive Performance," the latter of which was funded by NASA and NSF.

Colwell and Goldin emphasized their concern at a forum on 30 June. The NASA/NSF report points out that while the U.S. economy has enjoyed seven years of uninterrupted growth, with low inflation, low unemployment, and the first federal budget surplus in 30 years, declines in funding for certain research fields may put this resurgence at risk.

Goldin underscored his disappointment by saying, “I can't stand any longer to see the research machine dismantled (because of lack of federal financial support),” He added, “I am watching the disinterest of government, industry, and academia. I don't see any passion for this (increasing support for physical science) except by the agency heads.”

Colwell, alluding to funding increases for the National Institutes of Health (NIH), didn't imply that NIH should get less, but rather that basic physical sciences should receive more. "NIH is an important investment, but we can't do away with the physical sciences because they are the underpinning," she said, adding that out of a $1.7 trillion economy the federal government is only spending $37 billion for research.

In spite of reports that the private sector is asking unheard of investments in R&D, "some of the industries that rely on physical sciences and engineering fields—electronics, chemicals, and computing—improved profits while cutting back their support for research that could produce long-term benefits," according to STEP. Goldin called it "unrealistic." "Industry is doing product development, not long-term research—only the federal government can do the funding for long-term research," he stressed.

Yet, STEP noted, physics, mechanical engineering, and the geological sciences all have experienced a 20% or more reduction in long-range federal research investment between 1993 and 1997, the last year that data are available on federal obligations. And "as a result of budget deficit reduction and changes in agency missions, the federal government's support for electrical engineering research declined 36% between 1993, when the research funding peaked, and 1997."

Calling attention to other problems for U.S. research investment, STEP recommends:

· Changes in current surveys to collect more reliable data for designing and evaluating public economic policies— Carefully chosen statistical data, collected nationally and recurrently, are needed to help track changes in research and innovation, as well as to help design and evaluate public policy. For example, science and technology indicators and data fall woefully short in illuminating the applications of information technologies in a cross-section of industries, according to STEP.

· An examination of the skills required of the high-technology work force and how well U.S. institutions and foreign sources are meeting the need, particularly for information technologies— Immigration quotas have been raised, some academic degree and skills training programs have expanded, and companies are paying higher premiums for skilled labor or seeking it abroad. Despite these measures, it is not clear whether there will remain a shortfall that may inhibit U.S. economic growth and innovation, and what should be done about it, STEP noted.

· An assessment of the effects of intellectual property rights— Intellectual property is an increasingly valuable commodity, and protection of rights, through patents, copyrights, and penalties for misappropriating trade secrets, is a crucial incentive to investment and creativity. Strengthening and extending these rights in the United States and elsewhere in the past 25 years were appropriate and probably necessary, the report noted. On the other hand, doing so has proved contentious, increasing litigation costs and sparking claims that these changes sometimes discourage competition, research, and the communication of research findings.

NWS ANNOUNCES PLANS FOR HEADQUARTERS RESTRUCTURING

NWS Director John J. Kelly Jr. has announced plans to restructure NWS Headquarters. In a memo to his staff dated 4 June, Kelly said he has completed the "first steps" of the reorganization and that approval for finalizing the new organization had been provided from Under Secretary James Baker and Deputy Under Secretary Scott Gudes. Flushing out the details in the finalization will be carried out by NWS Deputy Director John Jones and Mark Brown, Deputy Chief Financial and Administrative Officer, who are expected to make their report by 31 August.

In a statement responding to the questions from the editor of the AMS Newsletter on 30 June, the NWS Public Affairs Office issued the following: "As the National Weather Service completes a decade-long period of fielding modern technologies and restructuring its operations, agency leadership is focusing on the future direction of the agency.

"Teams of employees and managers have recently refined the NWS mission statement, developed a series of core values common to everyone in the organization and formulated a vision of the NWS of the future. The reorganization plan being developed for NWS Headquarters will create a more efficient and organized approach to providing services to the public and to government partners.

"Two key points are guiding the reorganization planning efforts:

"1. The goal of the headquarters organization is to keep pace with improvements in science and technology and avoid the need for another major modernization in 15 or 20 years.

"2. The headquarters reorganization plan places emphasis on strategic planning and financial and technology management. "Many of the details of the headquarters reorganization won't be worked out until fall, but the overall intent is to bring science and technology functions together so that, for example, all product improvement managers of NEXRAD, AWIPS, and ASOS will work closely together and be coordinated by the same office director. The plan will also unite meteorology, hydrology, and climatology programs so that weather, water, and climate services are more closely integrated."

In the 4 June memo, Kelly emphasized that while the plan will result in a reduction in NWS Headquarters' personnel, the restructuring is not designed for that purpose. He also noted that the plan segregates clearly headquarters' functions—policy, resource allocation, leadership, management and oversight—from field functions—service delivery, development, and applied research.

Under the proposal, headquarters would have five primary offices, in addition to the Office of the Assistant Administrator:

Office of CFO, CAO, and CIO (Chief Financial Officer, Chief Administrative Officer, and Chief Information Officer)
Office of Services
Office of Science and Technology
Office of Hydrologic Development
Office of Operational Systems.

Under the Office of CFO/CAO/CIO would come the Budget and Policy Analysis, Comptroller, Management, and Organization and Information Technology sections.

Under the Office of Services would be the Climate Division, the Weather Division, the Water and Hydro Division, the Program Evaluation and Outreach Division, and the Training Division, under which come the National Training Center, Warning Decision Support and COMET in the field. The Office of Services also would have a Requirements Secretariat to facilitate overall NWS requirements process and systems change management activities.

Under the Office of Science and Technology would be the Principal Scientists, Program Control and Coordination, and the Program and Plans Division, plus the Meteorological Development and Technology Evolution Laboratories in the field.

The Office of Hydrologic Development would be designed to identify, develop, test, and support hydrologic forecast algorithms/tools and hydrologic data to improve efficiency and effectiveness of the hydrologic operations and services. In doing so, it would identify hydrologic science and technology to satisfy service requirements, manage the Hydrologic Research/Development Laboratory in the field, manage product improvement and oversee cooperative hydrologic research.

The Office of Operational Systems would have the headquarters' Office of the Chief Technical Officer, the Plans and Programs Staff and the Engineering, Logistics and Acquisition Division, and the field offices of Field Systems Operations Center, Telecommunications and Dissemination Systems Operations Center, the Radar Center, and the National Data Buoy Center.

Additional details on the restructuring are available on the NWS Office of Industrial Meteorology Internet site at http://www.nws.noaa.gov/im/moreim.htm.

INTERNATIONAL NEWS

WMO HOSTS NATURAL DISASTER REDUCTION FORUM

In the preparation for the closing event of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) held a special forum last month to assess the achievements of the decade and to define the priorities and a global strategy for disaster prevention for the twenty-first century. The IDNDR Programme Forum was held the week of 7 June with keynote addresses by Mr. Kofi Annan, secretary-general of the United Nations and by Professor Godwin O. P. Obasi, secretary-general of the WMO.

In his keynote address, Mr. Annan noted that “the international decade has seen some major achievements. There have been major advances in scientific operation. Around the world, an interdisciplinary scientific community of meteorologists, geologists, seismologists, and social scientists is working ever more cohesively. Despite its limited financial resources, IDNDR has also brought together governments, nongovernment organizations, other international organizations, and the private sector to work with the scientific community on disaster-reduction strategies.”

Mr. Annan noted, however, that despite the efforts made over the last 10 years, “the number and cost of natural disasters continue to rise.” In 1998, the impact of natural disasters was one of the most severe in recorded history. He mentioned that urban growth, the high and increasing vulnerability of developing countries, faulty development practices, and the effects of global warming were some of the reasons for this trend. He underlined the importance of sound early warning systems and the good communication of scientific knowledge to citizens and policy makers for effective disaster reduction in the twenty-first century. He said that “we must, above all, shift from a culture of reaction to a culture of prevention.”

In his address, Professor Obasi stated that one of the main concerns of the decade has been the application of science and technology to natural disaster reduction. He emphasized that, “as a scientific and technical organization, WMO has therefore been in the forefront of such applications, especially in the mitigation of weather-, flood-, and climate-related disasters.” Professor Obasi emphasized the cost of natural disasters in the latter part of this century. “Even in recent years, natural disasters associated with meteorological and hydrological phenomena are costing the world economy about $50 billion per annum. These disasters have also caused suffering to more than two billion people since 1965 and three million have lost their lives.”

Professor Obasi mentioned that over 70% of all natural disasters are caused by meteorological and hydrological phenomena. Hence, “the primary responsibilities of all national Meteorological and Hydrological Services (NMHSs) are the provision of information and services for the safety of life and property of the citizens of their respective countries. As WMO works very closely with these services, the primary objectives of its programs are such that the NMHSs have access to global data and information that are needed for timely warnings aimed at reducing the loss of life, property damage, and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters.”

As a result, Professor Obasi continued, scientific and technological advances have enabled the provision of skillful weather forecasts and warnings of up to about 10 days in advance in the extratropical regions. “Such information has been useful in minimizing the negative impacts of natural disasters on water resource management, energy use, transportation, agricultural production, and many other socioeconomic activities.” He added that “the Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere (TOGA) project (1985–1994) resulted in breakthrough of knowledge in El Niño prediction. It is to be recalled that the 1997/98 El Niño caused global damage of at least $34 billion.”

As for the future, Professor Obasi called for the coordination of all scientific and technical aspects of disaster reduction through the creation of an Inter-Agency Secretariat supported by all relevant U.N. Specialized Agencies and Programs. “A scientific challenge for the next century is to further explore and enhance those advances in science and technology relevant to the mitigation of natural disasters. To date, the prediction of weather-related disasters with good lead-time and adequate preparedness is still the best disaster mitigation option. Indeed, studies of the economies of disasters showed that for every dollar spent on prevention and preparedness, between $100 and $1000 are required for an equivalent effect after a disaster.”

As part of the IDNDR Programme Forum, a Sub-Forum on Science and Technology in Support of Natural Disaster Reduction also was held. The Sub- Forum was organized by the WMO and the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The coconvenors of the Sub-Forum were Dr. John Zillman, president of WMO and Dr Wolfgang Eder, director of the Earth Sciences Division at UNESCO. In his opening remarks at the Sub-Forum, Dr. Zillman underlined that natural disaster reduction is a "multifaceted and multidisciplinary process" and that "science and technology play a pivotal role" in it.

The Sub-Forum, which brought together world-wide specialists covering weather- and climate-related as well as other geophysical hazards ran through 8 July. Presentations were made on extratropical storms, tornadoes, drought, fire weather, extreme temperatures, sand and dust storms, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, tsunamis, storm surges, volcanoes, floods, and tropical cyclones. The discussions centered around the current state of science and technology in disaster reduction and consider ways to improve international focus for continued science and technology in support of disaster reduction. Three themes were treated in the panel discussions, namely Vulnerability and Awareness, Warning Capacities of Events and Preparedness and Education. A declaration was issued at the end of the Sub-Forum and was integrated in the Programme Forum’s final declaration.

GERMAN SCIENTISTS SUGGEST SAHARA BECAME DESERT BECAUSE OF EARTH ORBIT CHANGES

German scientists have theorized that one of the most striking climate changes in the past 11 000 years, causing the abrupt desertification of the Saharan and Arabia regions was initated by subtle changes in the earth's orbit, strongly amplified by resulting atmospheric and vegetation feedbacks in the Tropics. The research, published in the 15 July issue of Geophysical Research Letters, reported that the resulting transition that created agricultural losses in the region was an important reason that civilizations were founded along the valleys of the Nile, the Tigris, and the Euphrates.

The German scientists, headed by Martin Claussen of the Potsdam-Institut fuer Klimafolgenforschung (Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research), using a new climate system model, reported that the timing of the transition was governed mainly by a global interplay among the atmosphere, ocean, sea ice, and vegetation. The researchers employed a model of intermediate complexity to analyze climate feedbacks during the past several thousand years of the current, or Holocene, era. Called CLIMBER-2 (for CLIMate and BiosphERe, version 2.1), the model led to the conclusion that the desertification of North Africa began abruptly 5440 years ago. Before that time, the Sahara was covered by annual grasses and low shrubs, as evidenced by fossilized pollen, the scientists reported. The transition to today's climate was not gradual, they noted, but occurred in two specific episodes. The first, which was less severe, occurred between 6700 and 5500 years ago. The second, which was brutal, lasted from 4000 to 3000 years ago. Summer temperatures increased sharply, and precipitation decreased, according to carbon-1 dating, they noted. This event devastated ancient civilizations and their socioeconomic systems.

The change from the mid-Holocene climate to that of today was initiated by changes in the earth's orbit and the tilt of the earth's axis, they said. Some 9000 years ago, Earth's tilt was 24.14°, as compared with the current 23.45°, and perihelion, the point in the earth's orbit closest to the sun, occurred at the end of July, as compared with early January now. At that time, the Northern Hemisphere received more summer sunlight, which amplified the African and Indian summer season monsoon. The change in the earth's orbit occurred gradually, whereas the evolution of North Africa's climate and vegetation was abrupt. Claussen and his colleagues believe the various feedback mechanisms within Earth's climate system amplified and modified the effects touched off by the orbital changes.

By modeling the impact of climate, oceans and vegetation both separately and in various combinations, the researchers concluded that oceans played only a minor role in the Sahara's desertification. The CLIMBER-2 models showed that feedbacks within the climate and vegetation systems were the major cause of Saharan desertification, building rapidly upon the effects of the initial orbital changes. The model suggests that land use practices of humans who lived in and cultivated the Sahara, were not significant causes of the desertification.

WEATHER AND CLIMATE

TORNADO EXPERTS TESTIFY BEFORE CONGRESS

With the progress made in the past two decades, tornado warnings up to as much as 3–6 hours might be possible in the future. That outlook was given to a hearing held jointly by the House Science Committee's Subcommittee on Energy and Environment and the Subcommittee on Basic Research on 16 June.

Dr. Morris Weisman, scientist with the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), made the prediction, pointing out that modern observing systems allow "almost unprecedented" lead times, up to 60 minutes in some cases, for the 3 May storm that struck Oklahoma City that killed 42 people, injured 795, and caused a billion dollars in damages. He cited an experimental Advanced Region Prediction Systems (ARPS) model, produced by the Oklahoma University's Center for Analysis and Prediction of Storms, as an example of progress being made in storm forecasts. ARPS, using WSR-88D data and profiler data, was able to identify the Oklahoma region and much of north-central Oklahoma as potentially in the path of a developing storm 2 hours in advance, he said.

The current NWS coarser resolution 12-hour forecast produced only a broad region of precipitation, mostly over northern Texas, he explained. Producing that foecast, he said, required the use of a 256 node Origin 2000 computer (largest available), which ran at about 12 gigaflops of sustained performance, he said. "In comparison, current National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) and NOAA computers run at about 5–6 gigaflops," he noted. "In order to provide uniformity of service nationwide, it will require more than 100 times the computer power currently available."

Also providing testimony during the 2-hour hearing in the Rayburn House Office Building were Dennis McCarthy, meteorologist in charge of the NWS Norman (Oklahoma) Weather Forecast Office; Dr. Roger Wakimoto, professor and chair, Department of Atmospheric Science, University of California Los Angeles; and Dr. Howard Bluestein, professor of meteorology, University of Oklahoma.

Wakimoto, who has been conducting tornado research for more than 20 years, pointed out that only 20%–30% of "supercells" (rotating thunderstorms) actually produce tornadoes. "The missing ingredients that distinguish tornadic from nontornadic supercells are unknown," he said. While forecasts of supercell development have been well established, he continued, the mechanisms that trigger tornadogenesis are poorly understood. "That is, perhaps, one of the most fundamental questions concerning tornadoes left unresolved," he explained. Recent results from a field experiment called VORTEX (Verification of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment) in 1994 and 1995 strongly suggest that tornadogenesis is a rapidly evolving process that develops in only a matter of minutes. Attacking that problem, he said, will require a coordinated effort of airborne and mobile ground platforms simultaneously converging in an area of tornadogenesis. Still open to question, he said, is where the source of rotation is located within supercell thunderstorms. Some still believe the rotation begins within clouds while others speculate that the circulation starts at the ground.

For a number of years, he explained, we believed that the source of rotation began at midlevels within a storm and slowly descended with time. This led to the term "touchdown," based largely on visual observations before Doppler radar came along. But visual observations are misleading, he said, because the funnel cloud is simply responding to the lowering of atmospheric pressure as the tornado rotation intensifies.

"Resolution of this issue has important forecasting implications since the scanning mode of the WSR-88D radars will depend, in part, on the source of tornado rotation," he said. "If it is within clouds, the radar should focus its scans at higher levels. If it at the ground, then the radar should be interrogating the storm at low levels." As a side note, he said, "if we determine the source of rotation is the latter, we would be forced to change our nomenclature to tornado 'touchup,' " he said.

Bluestein reviewed research progress made in the study of storms, particularly the use of mobile systems such as Doppler on Wheels; Mesonet, a network of automated surface weather stations; an armada of instrumented cars; and TOTO (Totable Tornado Observation), designed to be placed in the path of tornadoes. "With new radar technology and faster and larger computers, we can make great progress in the next five to ten years in determining how and why tornadoes form, what instruments will be required to make the necessary measurements and how to protect the citizenry," he said.

McCarthy explained that the United States is "the most weather hazard prone nation on Earth." More than 1000 tornadoes occur each year. He provided considerable detail concerning the 3 May event in Oklahoma City, saying that more than 70 tornadoes were spawned that day across the Central Plains, more than 50 of them in Oklahoma alone. "On that day," he said, "the warning system worked very well. Outlooks, watches, and warnings were issued well in advance. They were communicated rapidly. People knew safety rules and responded properly. The media, emergency managers, local officials, volunteer spotter groups, and state agencies worked in partnership to keep people informed."

As a result of the NWS modernization program, he said, "...nationwide tornado warning lead times more than doubled during the past 10 years, on average, from less than 4 minutes to more than 11 minutes." The lead time in the Norman office is 15 minutes, he explained. "Furthermore, there are more frequent instances where tornado warnings are providing lead times in excess of 20 minutes." Not only are lead times improving, he said, but accuracies of warnings also have improved dramatically, rising from 30% to around 65%. For all severe storms, both tornadoes and severe thunderstorms, warning accuracies jumped from 57% to 83% in 1998.

McCarthy lauded the improvement that is being afforded NWS with the introduction of the Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS). AWIPS, he said, integrates all datasets from observing and prediction systems. Forecasters typically had to visit six different data sources to develop forecasts before AWIPS and perhaps another one or two, he said. Now, all data and information "are available right at the forecaster's fingertips."

He said more research is needed to assist forecasters in issuing better warnings for severe thunderstorms and heavy rainfall that lead to flash flooding, as well as help in determining which thunderstorms will produce hail, what the size of the hail will be, and whether the storm will, instead, be a heavy rainfall producer.

In concluding, McCarthy said, "Focused research will lead to better knowledge of tornadic storms. From better science will flow better operational procedures to anticipate, predict, and warn for tornadoes and other extreme weather phenomena."

NOAA WEEKLY SNOW COVER PRODUCT REPLACED

The hand-drawn Weekly Snow and Ice Chart of the Northern Hemisphere—NOAA's longest-running operational satellite product—has given way to more modern interactive computer techniques to improve product quality, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) recently announced.

The Satellite Analysis Branch of NOAA's National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service first began generating Northern Hemisphere Weekly Snow and Ice Cover analysis charts derived from NOAA's GOES and POES visible satellite imagery in November 1966. By measuring the fluctuations in snow and ice patterns during the year and comparing with other periods, the product initially provided valuable data for climatic research.

The spatial and temporal resolutions of the analyzed weekly chart, 190 km and seven days, respectively, have remained unchanged for more than 30 years. However, shortcomings, such as partially obstructed observations caused by persistent cloud cover near snow boundaries, caused errors in numerical weather prediction models. The weekly product update also often missed subtle, but important, changes in daily snow cover. Accuracy is critical, as erroneous snow cover in the models could contribute to significant errors in low-level air temperature forecasts and subsequently lead to inaccurate predictions of rainfall versus snowfall.

As a result of increasing customer needs and expectations, NOAA decided to design and implement an efficient, interactive workstation application. The hand-drawn chart required 6–9 hours of production time per week; the new Interactive Multi-sensor System allows daily production in only 70–80 minutes of analysis time. Transferring the computer system also enables the Satellite Analysis Branch to produce snow and ice analyses at a higher spatial resolution (~25km) each day by employing a variety of satellite data, including surface imagery products.

A commemoration was held on 27 May to observe the end of the Weekly Northern Hemisphere Snow and Ice Chart. Satellite Analysis Branch employee Thomas Baldwin remarked, "We will miss it, but not too much. We like the interactive computer age!"

An example of the new snow and ice chart can be found at http://www.ssd.noaa.gov/SSD/ML/realtime.html

NCAR TO HOLD OCTOBER WORKSHOP ON STORM STUDY NEEDS

The National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) will hold a workshop on 21–22 October focusing on the scientific needs and required capabilities for a research platform capable of penetrating mature convective storms.

An armored T-28 aircraft operated by the South Dakota School of Mines & Technology has been used for this type work for the past seven years under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation, providing the primary capability for penetrating storms where hail, lightning, and strong turbulence may be encountered.

NSF and the School of Mines staffs are seeking guidance from the atmospheric research community regarding future capabilities required to meet those needs. Platform options other than piloted aircraft, such as remotely-piloted vehicles or dropsondes, may be considered. All scientists interested in observational studies of mature convective storms are invited to participate or to submit statements. Prospective university participants may request assistance with travel expenses. Further details are available from the T-28 Facility Manager, Institute of Atmospheric Sciences, South Dakota School of Mines & Technology, 501 East Saint Joseph Street, Rapid City, S.D. 57701-3995 or at http://www.ias.sdsmt.edu/spa/.

COMPETITION WITH THE ISOBARS: WHAT NWS SHOULD AND SHOULD NOT PROVIDE

"Dos" and "Don'ts" to guide the National Weather Service in avoiding competition with commercial meteorological services were outlined on 17 June in a presentation at Weather Service headquarters by Michael Smith, president of Weather Data, Inc., Wichita, Kansas. His appearance was part of a professional outreach program started in 1998 by NWS Director John J. Kelly Jr.

The NWS should not provide forecast services for specific industries, electric power companies, for example, Smith said. It is OK to provide forecasts for the Chesapeake Bay but not Bay Forecasts specifically for boaters, he continued. It is all right, also, in his estimation, to provide special services for county emergency managers, but not to highway departments and school districts, which likely are private sector clients, he maintained. During what turned out to be a spirited discussion, he told the group of meteorologists and managers that the media has to be the number one means of getting information out to the public.

Among other observations Smith made: both the NWS and the commercial weather community are challenged today to provide quicker information delivery during heavy weather episodes. The NWS needs to work at maintaining uniform message formats, which he said change too rapidly now even when the data remain constant: "Warnings and Watches" should be reserved for NWS use. The Internet, he indicated, is not currently considered a reliable vehicle for delivering critical weather information. "I get heartburn when I see NWS use it to deliver products," he said.

NASA UNVEILS EARTH OBSERVATORY WEB SITE

NASA recently unveiled the Earth Observatory, a Web site designed to improve communications between Earth scientists and the general public. The site offers the public an opportunity to learn about global climatic and environmental change in lay terms and presents stories, images, and animations that illustrate the complexities of Earth system science, as well as NASA's use of satellites and remote-sensing data to study our planet.

The Web site is sponsored by the Earth Observing System's (EOS) Project Science Office at Goddard Space Flight Center, the Landsat-7, Terra, and EOS-PM-1 projects and the Goddard Distributed Active Archive Center (DAAC).

It is designed to take advantage of the new, rapidly emerging Internet technologies for distributing multimedia information resources via the World Wide Web, according to the March/April issue of The Earth Observer. As such, the Earth Observatory features real remote-sensing data that show key phenomena of change on global and regional scales, as well as background information written in lay terms.

Its popularity can be measure, in part, by the initial public reaction. In the first two weeks after its inauguration in late April, the site received more than 91 000 visits from people around the world. The site is updated weekly, officials said. The site's URL is http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov.

SHOULD WE SEEK SHELTER UNDER AN OVERPASS IN A TORNADO?

We've all seen them on television or in movies, people caught in a tornado and scrambling for shelter under an overpass. Right thing to do? "No" says Dennis McCarthy, meteorologist in charge of the NWS Norman (Oklahoma) Weather Forecast Office. Or at least "only as a last resort."

McCarthy was asked the question when he appeared before a hearing held jointly by the House Science Committee's Subcommittee on Energy and Environment and the Subcommittee on Basic Research in the Rayburn House Office Building on 16 June. The Subcommittee on Energy and Environment has jurisdiction over NOAA's weather research, and the Subcommittee on Basic Research has jurisdiction over NSF.

Energy and Environment Subcommittee Chairman Ken Calvert (R-CA) opened the hearing by asking McCarthy if seeking shelter under an overpass was, indeed, a good idea. In answering, he pointed out that several people have been killed in attempting to find shelter that way. The wise thing to do, he said, is not to be caught in a situation where you have to make that decision. With the availability of NOAA weather radios and radio and television stations providing timely warnings, people should be able to avoid being caught out on the road when a tornado is threatening, he said. The proper thing to do when one hears the warning is to take it seriously and seek out a shelter that provides a measure of safety.

"But what if one really is caught out on the road with a tornado rushing toward them? Should you get under an overpass?" he was asked. "Only as a last resort," he responded.

ENVIRONMENTAL DATA SAVED FROM THE RAVAGES OF TIME

Millions of global environmental records—including handwritten ships' logs from the nineteenth century and weather observations from America's early years— are being saved from the ravages of time by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

The records, located primarily in the NOAA's three national data centers, include millions of paper, film, and tape records. The paper is deteriorating, the acetate-based film is degrading, and the tape is becoming obsolete. As the media deteriorate with age, records are in danger of being lost. To remedy the situation, NOAA has implemented an environmental data rescue program, which rescues datasets by converting them to more stable storage media.

"The goal of the data rescue program is to preserve the meteorological, climatological, geophysical, oceanographic, and biological data stored in NOAA's national data centers, and throughout NOAA," said Tim Roberts, program manager. "The records are vital to preserving the nation's environmental record, which provides the foundation for scientific, engineering, and economic decisions. We plan to make this information more accessible to researchers and the general public by placing it online."

Under the massive data rescue project, begun in 1996, the following datasets have been rescued thus far: 732 000 oceanographic surface and profile observations recorded on paper, 13.5 million paper meteorological forms, 440 000 microfiche cooperative weather observation forms, 131 000 pages of coastal data recorded on paper, 250 bathymetric maps on paper, 4000 geophysical observations on paper, and 88 000 reels of microfilm containing meteorological data. But these accomplishments represent only a small portion of the data in need of rescue. Under the current program, the overall effort will take more than a decade to complete.

The records are housed at the National Climatic Data Center in Asheville, North Carolina; National Oceanographic Data Center, Silver Spring, Maryland; National Geophysical Data Center, Boulder, Colorado; Coastal Services Center, Charleston, South Carolina; National Ocean Service, Silver Spring, Maryland; and the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, Silver Spring, Maryland.

NASA SCIENTISTS USE SATELLITES TO HELP TRACK A DISEASE

Using weather satellites to spot the early signs of an El Niño, scientists may be able to help save East Africans and their livestock from Rift Valley Fever, a mosquito-borne disease that can be fatal to humans and animals.

NASA and Department of Defense researchers have determined that rising sea surface temperatures in the western equatorial Indian Ocean, combined with an El Niño in the Pacific, can lead to abnormally heavy rains in East Africa. These rains create a favorable habitat for the mosquitoes that carry the Rift Valley Fever virus, spreading it to humans and animals.

Researchers at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, and the Department of Defense—Global Disease Infections System, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, D.C., studied nearly five decades of data to produce these findings. According to their report in the 16 July issue of the journal Science, satellite data can help predict Rift Valley Fever outbreaks up to six months in advance.

"In the early 1980s, we discovered a cycle of Rift Valley Fever outbreaks that appeared to depend on rainfall," said Kenneth Linthicum, a Walter Reed entomologist. "There were large outbreaks every seven to ten years, but the virus apparently disappears between outbreaks," he said. Linthicum consulted with Assaf Anyamba, a Goddard geographer who uses satellites to study the effects of El Niño, a phenomenon that occurs when sea surface temperatures rise in the eastern Pacific Ocean. They found that some El Niño episodes over the past five decades led to large Rift Valley Fever outbreaks. During an El Niño, East Africa often receives more rain than normal, but El Niño alone does not ensure an outbreak.

According to Anyamba, the decisive factor is the warming of the Indian Ocean along with the Pacific, which occurred in two of five El Niños over the last 17 years. "When the western equatorial Indian Ocean is similar to the East Pacific Ocean in sea surface temperature, there will likely be a large-scale outbreak of Rift Valley Fever following heavy rainfall over large areas of East Africa," he said.

"What's interesting here is that satellite data can provide advance warning of conditions suitable for Rift Valley Fever outbreaks and then identify the actual areas affected," said Compton Tucker, a Goddard biologist who has used satellite data to study vegetation in Africa for over 20 years. Satellites provide synchronous measurements of ocean temperature and vegetation conditions. The close relationship between ocean temperature, rainfall, and land vegetation helps scientists determine which areas received the most rain and are greener than normal, making them likely habitats for the mosquitoes that carry the Rift Valley Fever virus.

The Rift Valley Fever virus is passed into the eggs of Aedes mosquitoes. The mosquitoes lay their eggs in moist soil when floodwaters recede. The young insects hatch when the area is reflooded and feed on local livestock. A second kind of mosquito, the Culex, then causes the large outbreaks by contracting the virus from infected livestock and spreading it rapidly. Culex mosquitoes are only prevalent when there are excessive rains. Heavy rains typically hit the area over Eastern Africa only when both oceans are warmer than normal. The virus causes death in livestock populations and produces flu-like symptoms that can be fatal to humans.

Linthicum suggests that insecticides placed into the soil months before the mosquito season will stop production of the Aedes mosquitoes. "If you know when the outbreak is going to happen, you can treat areas near domestic animals and human populations," he said. Linthicum said that there are safe ways to treat the soil to prevent the mosquitoes from hatching. There also are vaccines for livestock.

ENVIRONMENTAL NEWS

POLAR SNOW DATA CONFIRM OZONE DEPLETION PRODUCED BY HUMAN ACTIVITIES

Scientists making measurements from air trapped in polar snowpacks in Antarctica and Greenland have confirmed that most of the gases responsible for stratospheric ozone depletion are produced by human activities and are not from naturally occurring events in the atmosphere. The measurements reveal for the first time that the major ozone-depleting gases were not present in detectable amounts in the atmosphere in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

The data were obtained from two sites in Antarctica and one site in Greenland from depths of up to 120 meters. They are consistent with suggested anthropogenic (human-caused) emission histories of these gases and indicates that human emissions can account entirely for their presence in the atmosphere, according to an article in the current issue of the journal Nature.

Lead author James Butler, of NOAA's Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory (CMDL) in Boulder, Colorado, noted that the data confirm that these major chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and chlorinated solvents in the atmosphere are entirely produced by human emissions and that contributions from volcanoes or the biosphere are negligible or nonexistent.

Suggestions that volcanoes, biota, or other natural sources could be contributing significantly to ozone-depleting gases were considered plausible by some, because measurements were not available to confirm the absence of these gases in the atmosphere before their anthropogenic emission began in the mid-twenthieth century. Butler maintains that the measurements made by the team of researchers confirm that these compounds were not around before man began emitting them.

The CFCs, chlorinated solvents, and halons measured in the study are all listed as significant ozone-depleting substances in the amended and adjusted Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, an international agreement to reduce global production of ozone-depleting substances. Two other compounds studied by the team, methyl chloride and methyl bromide, showed evidence of significant pre-twentieth century sources. Whereas methyl chloride may have a natural component as large as 90%, it is not listed in the Montreal Protocol. Methyl bromide, a widely used fumigant, was added to the Protocol in 1992. The study suggests that methyl bromide was present in the southern hemisphere at about 5.5 parts per trillion (ppt) in 1900 and at about 6.5 ppt before the onset of its use as a fumigant in the early 1960s. Since then, it appears to have increased to about 8 ppt in the southern hemisphere.

Northern hemispheric results for methyl bromide were inconclusive, because the authors determined that the site was subject to other influences. The science team includes Butler; Stephen Montzka, Andrew Clarke, and James Elkins of NOAA/CMDL; Mark Battle and Michael Bender, Princeton University; Cara Sucher, University of Rhode Island; Jeffrey Severinghaus, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, and Eric Saltzman, Rosential School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Miami.

The research was conducted in conjunction with the National Science Foundation's Office of Polar Programs and was funded by NOAA's Climate and Global Change Program, the National Institute of Global Environmental Change, and the Methyl Bromide Global Coalition.

NCAR SCIENTISTS IN ALASKA TO SEARCH FOR CLUES ON HOW FOREST FIRES SPREAD

NCAR scientists are conducting research in Alaska this month seeking clues to how violent and unpredictable forest fires spread. The team of researchers is flying over a prescribed burn on 2000 acres approximately 25 miles northeast of Fairbanks. The experiment, called Frostfire, is being conducted between 8 and 20 July and is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Forest Service.

"There are still a lot of unanswered questions about what goes on in wildfires, especially large ones," said NCAR scientist Lawrence Radke. "Frostfire offers the possibility of studying an intense fire with uniform fuels in a location where, with good luck, we can be in a good position to observe it with our high-speed infrared imager. This is exactly the kind of conditions we need."

Radke and NCAR scientist Terry Clark are collecting data using NCAR's Thermacam imager mounted on a Forest Service Navajo aircraft. Also onboard is NASA investigator Robert Higgins and NASA's fire-imaging spectrometer. NCAR's Thermacam is a digital, high-resolution infrared imager with a sensing range between 40° below zero and 3600° above zero Fahrenheit. Built by Inframetrics, the instrument produces color video, images of hot, swirling air and flames, detailing their motion, size, structure, and temperature.

About 60 researchers are involved in the experiment, the first experimental fire in terrain dominated by permafrost, officials explained. The collaborative effort focuses on boreal (northern) forest fires and climate change; carbon cycling; increased understanding of fire behavior, and long-term impacts on wildlife, soil erosion, and other ecosystem components.

SCIENTISTS STUDY AIR QUALITY AROUND GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS

Scientists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), along with researchers from other federal agencies and universities, are beginning an intensive program in July to monitor the level of ozone in the air in the region of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in Tennessee, one of the most popular tourist destinations in the United States.

The intent is to identify factors causing recent ozone increases, so that ozone forecasts can be refined and remedial strategies developed. About a dozen additional meteorological stations, which include continuously operating ozone monitors, will be installed for the first phase of the East Tennessee Ozone Study (ETOS). Phase One will explore the distribution of high-ozone levels. Next year, Phase Two will focus on improving the reliability of ozone forecasts.

Last year, the region had more than 40 days of public warnings; through 9 July 1999, there were eight days with ozone concentrations that required public warnings. These warnings, issued by the National Park Service, are especially meaningful for persons with respiratory illnesses or asthma, and the elderly. Also, those planning strenuous activity, such as hiking at high altitudes, are alerted when the ozone level is high.

"Over the East Tennessee Valley a persistent pool of ozone-producing trace gases remains aloft; this reservoir of air pollution has a strong impact on higher elevations. Ozone generated by photochemistry acting on both man-made and natural emissions can be of either distant or local origin," said Will Pendergrass, a research scientist with the Air Resources Laboratory in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. "Equally important to local ozone production, if not more, is the ozone transported into east Tennessee by winds aloft from surrounding regions. ETOS will examine the relative contributions of regional transport, man-made, and natural emissions on ozone in the East Tennessee Valley."

The monitors to be installed this month will enhance an existing network operated by the air pollution departments of county and state governments. The current network monitors major population areas, while the additional stations installed by NOAA will be placed in mostly rural areas and within the Great Smoky Mountains National Park to provide more detailed coverage. The team hopes to collect additional data using NOAA aircraft.

Concerned about the high levels of ozone and its impact on the health of those in the area, NOAA's Air Resources Laboratory/Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Division, began working with the National Park Service, the State of Tennessee, the University of Tennessee, East Tennessee State University, Knox County Air Pollution Control Department, and the Chattanooga-Hamilton Air Pollution Control Board to develop an ozone forecasting tool to feed into the decision-making process that is required of local governments. Researchers hope that the information they collect will determine if proposed new local control measures and emissions restrictions will reduce local ozone concentrations, or if changes must be enacted on a broader scale. For more information on ETOS, visit http://www.atdd.noaa.gov/etos/etos.htm.

EPA PRODUCES FREE DOCUMENT ON "SUNWISE" BEHAVIOR

The EPA has just produced a document called "The Sun, UV, and You: A Guide to SunWise Behavior." The 12-page document, number 430-K-99-035, features useful information about ozone depletion, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and a number of actions that can be taken to prevent overexposure to the sun's UV rays.

The pamphlet is available free of charge from EPA's Stratospheric Ozone Information Hotline at 800-296-1996 in the United States or (301) 614-3396 (international). Requests also can be submitted by e-mail at hotline@tidalwave.net.

MAJOR AIR POLLUTION STUDY BEGINS

Air pollution and its effects take a toll on the whole country, but especially in areas that are hot and humid. It can damage crops and forests and affect human health and scenic visibility. This summer, scientists from government and academia are pooling their resources in an air-quality study that will provide a better understanding of the basic chemical, meteorological, and transport processes that cause air pollution.

The Southern Oxidants Study (SOS) is a cooperative effort among universities and federal, state, and local government environmental and regulatory agencies to investigate air pollution. The study began in mid-June and is continuing through mid-July. Operating out of Nashville, Tennessee, scientists are investigating the processes responsible for the formation of ozone pollution and fine particulate matter (PM) that may be a factor in many health-related problems, as well as crop and forest damage. This research will provide critical background information to policy makers who are developing solutions to deal more effectively with these problems. "Although the nation has made considerable progress in managing air pollution during the past 30 years," says North Carolina State University's Dr. Ellis Cowling, "some of our most challenging problems still remain."

Using planes, helicopters, and air monitoring stations located throughout the South, scientists are collecting air samples to assess the physical and chemical characteristics of fine particulate matter and ozone. "The combined activities of this study provide an unparalleled opportunity to describe the production and distribution of ozone and PM throughout the southeast with a level of detail that has hitherto not been possible," says James Meagher, of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Aeronomy Laboratory in Boulder, Colorado. Chief scientist for the project, Meagher says that the improved insights and new scientific findings that are expected will translate directly into better management strategies for these two pollutants.

SOS is a coordinated, long-term research program focusing on gaining a better insight to the formation, accumulation, and, therefore, effective management of pollution in the South. In the late 1980s, scientists realized that the South had unique air-quality management problems caused by warm temperatures, high humidity, stagnant air, and natural emissions of hydrocarbons from the South's large rural and urban forests. "Large urban heat islands, such as Nashville or Atlanta, surrounded by lush vegetation and forests, cause a unique air pollution mix of human-caused and natural emissions," said Meagher.

During 1997, the Environmental Protection Agency introduced three regulatory plans to address the most serious air-quality problems in the nation. These include a new National Ambient Air Quality Standard for ozone, new standards for particulate matter, and proposals for new regional haze regulations to protect and improve visibility in the national parks and wilderness areas of the country. These actions are expected to result in a significant increase in the number of areas regarded as "nonattainment" for ozone. However, the new regulations are presently under intense scrutiny and judicial review. This heightens the need for ozone and PM management strategies to be based on sound science, which is the goal for SOS.

During the study, aircraft including NOAA's WP-3D Orion hurricane hunter (serving as flagship), the Tennessee Valley Authority's Bell helicopter, the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory's Gulfstream -1 (G-1), and a DeHavilland Caribou is taking a series of coordinated chemical and meteorological measurements. As air pollution is a problem that doesn't go away when the sun sets, investigators from the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory are using the G-1 aircraft to make measurements of ozone and aerosols at night, and intercomparisons will be made with the daytime flights of the other aircraft. The planes are being used to collect air samples over a wide area of the southeast and midwestern United States to assess to what degree ozone or fine particulate pollution is a regional or a local problem. The researchers are also using ground-based meteorological and air-quality monitoring stations throughout Nashville and middle Tennessee.

During the study, the NOAA P-3—which has been reconfigured by NOAA's Aircraft Operations Center in Tampa, Florida, from a hurricane research platform to a flying air chemistry laboratory —is making a limited number of flights to study ozone and PM formation in the region around Atlanta, Georgia. Atlanta is a much larger city than Nashville, with proportionally greater air pollution emissions. A major contributor to Atlanta's ozone problem is automobile exhaust, which plays a significant role in particulate matter production. NOAA's P-3 aircraft is gathering data, during extensive low-altitude flight patterns (about 1500 feet above the ground) over the major population and air traffic centers of Nashville and Atlanta, that permits scientists to assess the similarities and differences in the air quality of these two southern cities and allow policy makers to determine the appropriate response to air-quality management.

Scientists hope to maximize their findings by conducting the experiments in both cities and to provide a regional perspective for the atmospheric process studies. According to Meagher, "We're expecting to develop a really good database from these experiments that will provide the sound science needed to find solutions to the special air pollution problems facing this region."

For more information concerning SOS, check the Aeronomy Lab Web site at http://www.al.noaa.gov.

CORAL REEFS FOCUS OF MANY AQUARIUS 1999 MISSIONS

The coral reefs around the Florida Keys will receive some close study this summer as scientists, including the first visiting team from Japan, will live and conduct research below the sea during six missions in the Commerce Department's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's underwater laboratory, Aquarius. And, thanks to technology, people with access to the Internet can share in the adventure. Aquarius, funded by NOAA's National Undersea Research Program (NURP) is unique because it is the only underwater laboratory that allows scientists to live and work beneath the sea for 10-day missions to study coral reefs and our coastal ocean.

The first mission was 14 June– through 23 June when researchers from the University of South Carolina studied how water movement affects coral reef organisms. The next mission, 13–20 July, is the first cooperative program using saturation diving between NOAA and JAMSTEC, the Japan Marine Science and Technology Center. Two scientists from Japan and one American researcher (who speaks Japanese) will study coral productivity and growth data to better understand the role coral reefs play in the global carbon cycle. The mission season ends in November. The full mission schedule is

13–20 July: Coral productivity and growth data to better understand the role coral reefs play in the global carbon cycle, NOAA, and JAMSTEC;

9–18 August: Detailed studies of underwater light and animal ecology, University of Maryland;

13–22 September: Feeding biology of corals, effects of water movement, particle capture, prey behavior, and growth rate, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland;

11–20 October: Factors affecting sponge growth at Conch Reef, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Virginia Institute of Marine Science;

8–17 November: The ecological significance of growth and reproduction by an important sediment producing green seaweed, University of Hawaii.

"Aquarius 2000 takes underwater laboratories to the next level," said Dr. Steven Miller, director of the National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, which administers and operates the Aquarius program. The Center is one of six National Undersea Research Centers that fall under NOAA's Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research. "We have new technology and operational protocols to enhance the scientists' ability to work underwater," Miller said. "And now, the public can watch and learn about our program through our homepage: Web cams, chat sessions, and expedition logs will all be available."

Moored in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Aquarius sits 60 feet deep at the base of a coral reef wall off Key Largo. Contained within its metal walls are all the comforts of home along with a well-equipped laboratory. Aquarius is often compared with NASA's space station. Because of its location, Aquarius operates as a valuable tool for coral reef study. "Coral reefs are threatened by increasing amounts of pollution, overharvesting of fisheries, diseases of unknown origin, and global change," Miller said. "The Aquarius program helps scientists better understand our changing ocean and coral reefs."

NOAA's mission is to describe and predict changes in the earth's environment and to conserve and manage wisely the nation's coastal and marine resources. The Web site is http://www.uncil.edu/nurc/aquarius/index.htm

SATELLITES AND SPACE

GOES-L LAUNCH DEMATED; LAUNCH DELAYED UNTIL LATE JULY OR LATER

NOAA's GOES-L weather satellite, originally scheduled for launch on 6 May, has been demated from its launch vehicle at Cape Canaveral Air Station, Florida, and is now tentatively planned for launch in late July. Officials speculated, however, that the launch might be delayed until October.

The spacecraft was removed from its Atlas IIA rocket on Launch Pad 36A and returned to Astrotech, Titusville, Florida, its original integration facility. While at Astrotech, its batteries will be reconditioned and a gaseous nitrogen purge will be performed to components on the satellite to prevent degradation, officials explained.

The launch was delayed to allow NASA time to review recent Titan and Delta launch failures. It also allows results of internal reviews by the rocket manufacturers and by the Air Force. Once the launch restraints are resolved, the launch count will be picked up at launch minus 20 days, officials said.

GOES-7 BEING REPOSITIONED AND WILL CHANGE FROM ENVIRONMENT TO EDUCATION ROLE

NOAA’s GOES-7, an environmental satellite launched in 1987, is being repositioned to 175° W and will change its role from weather, environmental, and search and rescue activity to one of supporting the PanPacific Education and Communications Experiment by Satellite (PEACESAT), according to NOAA officials.

PEACESAT is a public service satellite telecommunications network that links educational institutions, regional organizations, and governments in the Pacific Islands region. Specifically, it facilitates the sharing of knowledge, information, culture, and resources and helps to lessen the barriers of the Pacific Ocean, which comprises one-third of the Earth's surface.

In the past, GOES-7 has been used primarily for weather prediction, collecting, and disseminating data on wind direction and speed of clouds to help meteorologists better understand atmospheric circulation patterns. It also participated in an international search and rescue program known as COSPAS/SARSAT.

Because GOES-8 and GOES-10 have taken over those responsibilities, NOAA was able to find a different use for GOES-7, officials explained. In this partnership, PEACESAT will provide the maintenance required for the satellite, while NOAA will provide the engineering skills. The 23-year-old satellites, GOES-2 and GOES-3, that PEACESAT was using previously will be brought out of orbit and replaced by the sturdier GOES-7.

THIRTY-SEVEN-YEAR OLD MYSTERY ON SOLAR WIND SOLVED

A 37-year-old mystery of why the sun's solar wind accelerates to 2 million miles an hour, twice the predicted speed, has been solved in what has been termed a "giant leap forward" by scientists familiar with the subject.

At an 8 July press conference at NASA headquarters in Washington D.C., those scientists said that the surprising answer is magnetic waves. Much like a surfer riding waves toward shore, electrically charged particles, or ions, hitch a ride on the oscillating magnetic waves in the sun's outer atmosphere or corona, according to Dr. John Kohl, senior astrophysicist at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He also is the principal investigator for the Ultraviolet Coronagraph Spectrometer instrument on the International Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) and Spartan 201 Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer.

Observations from Spartan 201 (deployed on the recent STS-95 mission in November 1998 marked by Sen. John Glenn's return-to-space flight) and from SOHO, plus theoretical analyses, led to the explanation, according to the scientists participating in the NASA news conference. Dr. Leonard Strachan and Dr. Steven Cranmer, both also from the Smithsonian Astrophysical Laboratory; Dr. Craig DeForest, a Stanford University solar physicist working at Goddard Space Flight Center, and Dr. George Withbroe, science director for the sun–earth connection theme at NASA headquarters.

The mystery was first presented in 1962, shortly after Glenn made his first spaceflight in Friendship-7. Then, instruments aboard the Mariner-2 spacecraft made measurements of the solar wind. The solar wind, explained Kohl, is the connection between the sun and the earth. The wind sweeps toward Earth producing its "space weather" and influencing the Van Allen radiation belts that circle the globe. It also is responsible for the colorful aurora borealis and aurora australis, also known as the northern and southern lights.

The acceleration of the solar wind takes place within one or two solar diameters of the sun's surface and within its corona, the scientists said. Previously, theories held the acceleration might take place as far out as five solar diameters, they said. That theory and many others concerning the solar wind had abounded through the years, but none could be proven or disproven because no spacecraft had probed the sun's turbulent outer atmosphere until now. With the new data, scientists were able to determine that the heavier oxygen ions were being accelerated away from the sun at speeds of 1.3 million miles an hour, twice as fast as the lighter and more plentiful hydrogen ions that fly out from the sun at 600 000 miles an hour, the scientists reported. From that data, they also detected that magnetic waves oscillating in synch with the oxygen ions were the source of the energy boost. "Just as a child riding on a swing moves higher if someone pushes with the right rhythm, the resonant magnetic waves give a boost to the oxygen ions," said Cranmer. DeForest described the discovery as something that "turns science on its head. It's like walking into your kitchen and finding out that the coffee kettle is heating the stove...." The scientists explained that the magnetic waves take place in the central region of the sun's corona, a gaseous ring of the sun's outer atmosphere, normally only visible during a complete eclipse when the moon blocks out the sun for a short time.

NASA officials were able to create an artificial solar eclipse in which they could view the corona in ultraviolet light using the two spacecraft to collect independent measurements for researchers to analyze. Using the two sets of data, researchers were able to break down the solar wind into its component frequencies.

NASA PLANS CLOUDSAT MISSION FOR 2003

NASA has announced plans for the launch of a small spacecraft mission in 2003 that will be focused on understanding the role of optically thick clouds. To be known as CloudSat, the mission will use advanced cloud-profiling radar to provide information on the vertical structure of highly dynamic tropical cloud systems, according to Dr. Ghassem Asrar, NASA's associate administrator for Earth Science. The new radar will enable measurements of cloud properties for the first time on a global basis, revolutionizing our understanding of cloud-related issues.

CloudSat is a collaboration involving Canada, Germany, Japan, and the United States and will be managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California. Cost is estimated at $135 million, of which NASA's contribution will be approximately $111 million. Additional funding will be provided by the Canadian Space Agency, the U.S. Department of Energy and the U.S. Air Force. The Canadian Space Agency also is developing key radar components and contributing scientific expertise. Ball Aerospace, Boulder, Colorado, will build the spacecraft.

An important contribution of CloudSat, according to Michael King, EOS senior project scientist at Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, is the way it will fly in formation with the EOS-PM-1 and PICASSO-CENA (Pathfinder Intruments for Cloud and Aerosole Spaceborne Observations-Climatologie Etendue des Nuages et des Aerosols). PICASSO-CENA, led by Dr. David Winker of the Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia, is designed to address the role of clouds and aerosol particles and their impact on the earth's radiation budget—a balance between incident solar energy absorbed by the earth and emitted longwave energy lost to space that ultimately controls the temperature of the earth. The CloudSat mission will be led by Dr. Graeme Stephens of Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.

NEW STUDY OF ARIZONA METEOR CRATER CONTRADICTS PREVIOUS THEORY

Most of the asteroid that blasted Meteor Crater out of the Colorado Plateau melted, according to new evidence from a group of scientists. The new finding contradicts the previously held theory that the Canyon Diablo meteor vaporized and gives a glimpse of what happens when similar-sized meteors slam into Earth every 6000 years or so, according to a story in the 1 July issue of Science magazine.

Meteor Crater, near Winslow, Arizona, the best preserved impact crater in the world, was formed 50 000 years ago—just yesterday on the geological time scale. Although modest by geological standards—the equivalent of a 20–40 megaton bomb—it grabs scientific attention because of its close proximity to our own timeline and for the story it tells about what could happen again, the magazine reported. The bowl-shaped depression measures 1.2 kilometers (four-fifths of a mile) wide and 180 meters (570 feet) deep, and scientists say events like this occur every 1600 years, with a Canyon Diablo-sized meteor slamming into a land mass every 6000 years.

In their report, the scientists conclude that more than four-fifths of the earth-crossing asteroid completely melted and spread over the Four Corners Region where Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah meet. Most of the iron asteroid, which was 30 meters (100 feet) or more in diameter, spread as an enormous expansion plume produced by gases released from Colorado Plateau limestone. A fraction of the melted material survived to form sand-grain-sized particles called "spheroids." By using complex measurements of radioactive nickel 59 and computer modeling, the researchers determined the probable depth within the asteroid at which these spheroids were formed. Their experimental measurements and modeling results indicate that the asteroid was travelling faster on impact than previously believed.

Keith Fifield, of the Australian National University, led the team in systematically measuring long-lived radioisotope nickel 59 in Canyon Diablo meteorites and spheroids. Nickel 59 is a "cosmogenic nuclide" produced in space when cosmic rays penetrate objects containing nickel 58. Nickel 58 changes to nickel 59 by absorbing an extra neutron from cosmic radiation. Canyon Diablo meteorites contain seven times more nickel 59 than do recovered spheroids, meaning they had come from the surface or outer shell of the asteroid where exposure to cosmic radiation is greatest, according to Greg Herzog, of Rutgers University. Nickel 59 is considered a more useful cosmogenic nuclide for analysis than some more commonly used ones because of the mechanism by which it forms, its long half-life (76 000 years), its low volatility and its resistance to weathering, team members explained.

Elisabetta Pierazzo, a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, used numerical models to simulate the impact. The simulation factored in the size and composition of Canyon Diablo and its target. As a result, she determined which parts of the earth-smashing asteroid remained solid and which melted and became spheroids. The team, which includes faculty members from Rutgers University, The University of Arizona in Tucson, Australian National University, University of Rhode Island, and University of California, Berkeley, concluded that the precursor material of the spheroids probably came from depths of 1.3–1.6 meters (4–5 feet) beneath the surface of the meteor before it entered the earth's atmosphere. Pierazzo estimated that only about 15% of the rear, outer part of the asteroid remained solid after impact and that the other 85% of the projectile melted. She bases her conclusion on combined observational, experimental, and theoretical evidence.

Impact velocities by Earth-crossing asteroids average approximately 15–20 kilometers per second. The 20 km/s velocity, 45 000 mph, would produce a melting profile that agrees with the experimental measurements, according to Pierazzo. At lower velocities, a much larger fraction of the projectile would have remained solid, leaving behind far more meterorites. "I feel confident," she said, "that this impact was at higher velocity than many people have believed it to be. This work gives no evidence for vaporization. From what we know about shock pressure, melting, and vaporization of iron, the model indicates little or no vaporization of the impact."

PEOPLE IN THE NEWS

KEY SPACE FLIGHT MANAGERS NAMED AT NASA

Several management changes in NASA's Office of Space Flight were announced recently by Associate Administrator Joe Rothenberg. William Readdy, former director for Space Shuttle requirements, was named Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Flight; Michael Hawes, formerly chief engineer for Space Station, was named Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Development (Space Station), and Norm Starkey, who had been serving as Executive Director for the Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel since August 1996, was named Director for Space Shuttle Requirements.

Readdy is a veteran of three space flights and remains in flight status, eligible for future Space Shuttle missions. His responsibility will be to handle the day-to-day management of personnel and program activities.

Hawes joined NASA in 1978 and served as manager of utilization and operations in the former space station office in Reston, Virginia. He has coordinated the integration of payloads on the Space Shuttle, served as payload officer for several shuttle missions and was a member of the mission control team for the reentry of Skylab in 1979.

Starkey's duties in his new position will include directing the Space Shuttle budget, establishing and implementing shuttle policy and serving as liaison to the administration, Congress, industry, and NASA's international partners.

HYDROLOGIST JAMES DOOGE WINS THE PRESTIGIOUS 1999 IMO AWARD

The 44th International Meteorological Organization Prize, known as the IMO Prize, was awarded to Professor James C.I. Dooge for his outstanding contributions to the science of hydrology.

Professor Godwin O. P. Obasi, secretary–general of WMO, underlined the importance of the enormous contributions of Professor Dooge throughout his scientific career to the advancement of hydrological sciences and to the enhancement of global scientific cooperation within the framework of WMO's programs and networks.

Professor Dooge is a pioneer in applying mathematical and scientific techniques to the study of hydrology. He is regarded as one of the leading hydrologists of his generation. His contributions to international cooperation in hydrology and science in general include the prominent role he played as president of the International Association for Hydrological Sciences. His research includes the application of linear systems theory to hydrological problems and the study of open channel flow. He has shown a particular talent for unifying various approaches to the discipline as reflected in his paper "A General Theory for the Unit Hydrograph."

From a firm base in hydrology, Professor Dooge became involved in the much wider world of science, becoming a leading figure in both the First and Second World Climate Conferences. For three years he held the prestigious post of president of the International Council of Scientific Unions (now the International Council of Science—ICSU). In parallel with his work as a university professor and leader in international science, Professor Dooge maintained a quite separate career in politics, being at one time Foreign Minister and Senate Leader of the Republic of Ireland.

The title for this prize originates from the predecessor of WMO, the nongovernmental International Meteorological Organization (IMO), which was established in 1873. In 1951, IMO ceased to exist and its assets were transferred to the newly established WMO. The IMO Prize consists of a 14-carat gold medal, bearing on one side the official WMO emblem and on the other side the Latin inscription "Pro singulari erga scientiam meteorologicam merito." The prize also includes a monetary award and a parchment scroll.

The winner of the IMO Prize is selected by the Executive Council of WMO and the formal presentation of the prize is expected to take place in Dublin at a later date.

DAVID WARK, A NESDIS "FOUNDING FATHER," RETIRES AFTER 55 YEARS

David Wark, a research meteorologist with NOAA and one of the "founding fathers” of NESDIS, retired on 2 July after 55 years of government service.

Wark came to work with the government in 1946. Earlier in his career, he had worked as an astronomer for the U.S. Naval Observatory, a meteorologist with Pan American Airways, and a meteorologist at the California Institute of Technology.

He served on active duty with the U.S. Naval Reserve from 1944–46. His next job led him to France, Germany, and Egypt to work as a meteorologist with the U.S. Weather Bureau. In 1958, he began working as a research meteorologist with the U.S. Weather Bureau.

During collaboration with NASA, Wark served as the principal investigator for the SIRS instrument on the Nimbus-5 satellite in 1969. Two years later, he was principal investigator for SIRS-2 on Nimbus-7.

He has received a host of awards, including the Department of Commerce Gold Medal, the NASA Medal for Exceptional Scientific Achievement, the AMS Second Half Century Award, the ESSA Unit Citation, the Lloyd V. Berkner Space Utilization Award from the American Aeronautical Society and the Robert M. Losey Award from the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.

He also is recognized for having published a number of scientific papers on airglow, atmospheric transmittance of radiation, radiation balance, and inversion of radiation measurements to obtain atmospheric and surface parameters from satellites.

He considers one of his major accomplishments, however, to be his sail around the world. From 1982 to 1986, he sailed his 38-foot boat from Solomons, Maryland to Panama, across the Pacific and Indian Oceans and up the Atlantic Ocean back to Solomons.

REAR ADMIRAL PRAHL NAMED DIRECTOR OF NOAA'S MARINE CENTERS

Rear Admiral Nicholas Prahl of the NOAA Corps has assumed command of NOAA's Atlantic and Pacific Marine Centers. He will manage both centers from his office at the Atlantic Marine Center in Norfolk, Virginia.

Prahl replaces Rear Admiral John Albright, who retired 1 July. Albright had been director of the Pacific Marine Center in Seattle, Washington, since May 1992 and the Atlantic Center since July 1995 when both centers were put under one director. Albright supervised the operation of both centers from his office in Seattle.

Prahl's most recent assignment was as acting director of the Office of the Coast Survey, part of NOAA's National Ocean Service, where he managed the nation's nautical charting program.

He joined NOAA in 1970 and has served aboard the NOAA ships McArthur, George B. Kelez, Whiting, Fairweather, and Mt. Mitchell. A native of Beverly, Mass., he received a B.A. degree in geology from Harvard University, an M.S. degree in geology from the University of Colorado, and an M.S. degree in computer science from The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland.

He was confirmed to his position by the Senate in May and subsequently promoted to rear admiral, lower half.

LUEDTKE NAMED ASSOCIATE ADMINISTRATOR FOR PROCUREMENT AT NASA

Tom Luedtke has been named associate administrator for procurement at NASA. Luedtke has been serving in that position in an acting capacity since last August and has been instrumental in many of NASA's new procurement initiatives, according to the announcement by NASA Administrator Dan Goldin.

In his position, Luedtke will continue to guide and oversee some of NASA's procurement initiatives and will represent NASA procurement to the Congress, the White House, other government agencies, industry, and international organizations.

Luedtke began his career as a contract specialist with the Naval Air Systems Command, then located in Arlington Virginia. Before coming to NASA, he was the chairman and Army member of the Cost Principles Committee of the Defense Acquisition Regulation Council, the Department of Defense council that oversees its procurement regulations.

Luedtke received a bachelor's degree in political science and history from the University of Wisconsin—Parkside and a master's degree in business and a law degree from the University of Wisconsin—Madison.

ALLAN EUSTIS MOVES TO NESDIS

Allan Eustis, director of industrial meteorology with NWS, has changed positions, moving from NWS to NESDIS, where he will head NOAA's new Visualization Laboratory.

Eustis, who had been with the NWS Industrial Meteorology Office for five years, will head a new operation designed to provide improved weather imagery to the public and private sectors. The Visualization Lab is located in Silver Spring, Maryland.

RADAR TROUBLESHOOTERS RECEIVE AWARD

A team of radar troubleshooters from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Air Force Weather Agency, and U.S. Navy who keep the nation's Doppler weather network running, were recently awarded Vice President Gore's Hammer Award for reinventing government.

The Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) Hotline Team, based in Norman, Oklahoma, provides telephone and onsite support to 304 radar and user sites, including thousands of NOAA's National Weather Service, Federal Aviation Administration, and Department of Defense weather forecasters and system operators.

The team members are: Mark Albertelly, Dan Berkowitz, Cindy Chrisman, Paul Conroy, Daryl Covey, Dan Frashier, Alan Free, Dan Garcia, Bobby Harp, Frank Hewins, Dan Hoffman, David Jerkins, Matt Lynch, Vance Mansur, Delbert Matney, Ron Pattison, Jerry Pedone, Tony Ray, Jimmy Roper, Mike Shattuck, Robin Smith, and Bill Taylor.

"By shattering support industry standards for service excellence and blazing new benchmarks for real-time support to a critical weather warning system, the hotline team has earned the Hammer Award for putting customers first and achieving results important to Americans," said John J. Kelly, director of the National Weather Service. "Ultimately, all Americans benefit from the services provided by the NEXRAD hotline team."

NEXRAD Doppler weather radar is a key component of the $4.5 billion National Weather Service modernization program. Meteorologists and electronics technicians staff the weather radar hotline 24 hours a day, seven days a week from the NEXRAD Operational Support Facility in Norman, Oklahoma. The NEXRAD hotline supports the advanced Doppler Weather Surveillance Radar System, a complex mix of computers, software, radar hardware, and communication systems used by weather forecasters to identify severe storm patterns and provide early warnings to communities throughout the United States and U.S. military facilities.

The benefits of this technology are paying off today. NEXRAD Doppler weather, in part, has helped National Weather Service forecasters double the warning lead time for tornadoes to an estimated 11 minutes in 1999. Longer warning lead times potentially save lives. In fact, forecasters in Norman were able to provide lead times as long as 30 minutes for the 56 tornadoes that hit central Oklahoma 3 May, including an F5 that hit the highly populated Oklahoma City metropolitan area. Testimonials from survivors credit the National Weather Service warnings with saving their lives.

Team members resolve nearly a thousand problems each month for NEXRAD radar sites and local weather offices throughout the network, enabling each site to get back in operation quickly and meet their critical warning responsibilities, according to NEXRAD Operational Support Facility Director James Belville.

In annual customer surveys, the hotline consistently scores comprehensive customer approval ratings of 93%– 95%, Belville said. Elsewhere throughout the support industry, approval ratings of 80% are considered indicative of excellence, he added. Since 1991 when the service began, the hotline team collectively has resolved more than 60 000 customer requests for technical assistance throughout the network. Nearly 90% of requests are solved on the initial call, compared to an industry standard of 80%.

Hotline team members encourage feedback to improve their services, serve as key user advocates in the planning and review of system changes, and have initiated hundreds of improvements to the radar system. They have developed "Hotline Tales," a series of technical guidance for users published via the Internet. An innovative internal technical training program keeps the hotline team on the cutting edge as world-class system-level experts.

This is the fifth national award the team has received since the hotline began operations in November 1991.